A Critical Analysis of the Advantages Essay Example for Free

A Critical Analysis of the Advantages Essay It is argued that urbanization causes changes in the livings conditions under which people live and work. Some of these changes are positive (advantages) while others are negative (disadvantages). The positive effects include; improving housing conditions and provision of enhanced amenities. The negative effects include; stress on amenities, congestion and urbanization of poverty (Kawonga, 1999). Therefore, this essay will briefly explain these using real and valid examples from Malawi. To begin with, provision of better amenities as an advantage of urbanization. It is said that increasing urbanization provides communities with social and cultural benefits as well as access to education and health services (Hammond, 1985). This is evident at Nkhorongo in Mzuzu near Luwinga Township. With the development of the area many services are now being located there. For example, Mzuzu Academy, Trust Academy, Good Samaritan Internet Cafe and some Tobacco grading Companies that provides jobs to the masses. Improving housing conditions is another advantage of urbanization. It is noted that urbanizations brings with it innovations in technology and modern ideas and ambitions in the people engulfed by what are said to be urban areas (UN Habitat report, 2010). To meet the demand for shelter by the ever increasing urban population, Habitat for Humanity and Malawi housing Corporation dedicates itself to building low cost but high standard houses for the less privileged urban population. For example, the Habitat for humanity houses in Luwinga Township and the Malawi Housing corporations houses in Katoto and Mchengautuba in Mzuzu. Lastly, the disadvantages of urbanization; stress on amenities is one of the disadvantages of urbanization. It is argued that in most areas the authority designs everything to serve the population of that time but due to increase in population as areas develop leads to people scramble over the few available facilities/services (UN Habitat report, 2010). The example is on power cuts and availability of tap water for few hours per day in the city of Lilongwe. The presence of large consumers of water and electricity at Kanengo put pressure on these two facilities as the providers try to regulate their quantity so as to sustain the production force of the manufacturing industries. This leaves areas around Kanengo with no electricity or water for many hours per day. Congestion of traffic and pedestrians is another disadvantage of urbanization. With the availability of valuable amenities in urban areas, people flock there to have access and benefit from them. This results in an increase in urban population which leads to congestion (Cohen, 2006). This is usually manifested during rush-hour commuting. There is an intense concentration of people in the center of urban areas during working hours. This strains transportation systems, because a large number of people and traffic must reach a small area at the same time in the morning and disperse at the same time at noon and in the evening (Rubenstein, 2005). This is more evident at Lilongwe old town, hyper junction near the game stores and Shoprite. There are longer queues of traffic and large number of pedestrians struggling to find their way out. Urbanization of poverty is another disadvantage of urbanization. It is argued that in Malawi, rapid urbanization is not associated with the commensurate of economic growth and effective redistributive measures required to alleviate poverty, but the result is increasing urban poverty whose manifestation is the slums which develop in and around the acclaimed urban areas (Kawonga, 1999). It is further argued that urbanization of poverty in Malawian urban areas is enhanced by the change in locus of poverty from rural to urban spheres. This means that as people run away from the hardships of rural areas to urban areas, they carry with them their economically challenged life and continue it in the urban areas. As a result they lead to an increase in the number of the poor living in urban areas (Gonndwe, Fang Ayenagbo, 2011). This is more evident in Lilongwe at a place known as â€Å"N’gona†. It is located in the midst of well developed areas but it is not developed itself and it harbors one of the less previliged population of Lilongwe. In conclusion, this paper has critically pointed out and briefly explained the advantages and disadvantages of urbanization in Malawi.

Constructivism And Discovery Learning Education Essay

Constructivism And Discovery Learning Education Essay In 1960 Bruner published  The Process of Education. This was a landmark book which led to much experimentation and a broad range of educational programs in the 1960s. Howard Gardner and other young researchers worked under Bruner and were much-influenced by his work. In the early 70s Bruner left Harvard to teach at University of Oxford for several years (1972 1979). He returned to Harvard in 1979.   Later he joined the New York University of Law, where he is a senior research fellow (at the age of 93).   Theory   Bruner was one of the founding fathers of constructivist theory.Constructivism  is a broad conceptual framework with numerous perspectives, and Bruners is only one. Bruners theoretical framework is based on the theme that learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon existing knowledge. Learning is an active process. Facets of the process include selection and transformation of information, decision making, generating hypotheses, and making meaning from information and experiences.   Bruners theories emphasize the significance of categorization in learning. To perceive is to categorize, to conceptualize is to categorize, to learn is to form categories, to make decisions is to categorize. Interpreting information and experiences by similarities and differences is a key concept.   Bruner was influenced by  Piagets  ideas about cognitive development in children. During the 1940s his early work focused on the impact of needs, motivations, expectations (mental sets) and their influence on perception. He also looked at the role of strategies in the process of human categorization, and development of human cognition. He presented the point of view that children are active problem-solvers and capable of exploring difficult subjects. This was widely divergent from the dominant views in education at the time, but found an audience.   Four Key themes emerged in Bruners early work:   Bruner emphasized the role of structure in learning and how it may be made central in teaching. Structure refers to relationships among factual elements and techniques. See the section on categorization, below.   He introduced the ideas of readiness for learning and  spiral curriculum. Bruner believed that any subject could be taught at any stage of development in a way that fit the childs cognitive abilities. Spiral curriculum refers to the idea of revisiting basic ideas over and over, building upon them and elaborating to the level of full understanding and mastery.   Bruner believed that intuitive and analytical thinking should both be encouraged and rewarded. He believed the intuitive skills were under-emphasized and he reflected on the ability of experts in every field to make intuitive leaps.   He investigated motivation for learning. He felt that ideally, interest in the subject matter is the best stimulus for learning. Bruner did not like external competitive goals such as grades or class ranking.   Eventually Bruner was strongly influenced by Vygotskys writings and began to turn away from the intrapersonal focus he had had for learning, and began to adopt a social and political view of learning. Bruner argued that aspects of cognitive performance are facilitated by language. He stressed the importance of the social setting in the acquisition of language. His views are similar to those of  Piaget,  but he places more emphasis on the social influences on development. The earliest social setting is the mother-child dyad, where children work out the meanings of utterances to which they are repeatedly exposed. Bruner identified several important social devices including joint attention, mutual gaze, and turn-taking.   Bruner also incorporated Darwinian thinking into his basic assumptions about learning. He believed it was necessary to refer to human culture and primate evolution in order to understand growth and development. He did, however, believe there were individual differences and that no standard sequence could be found for all learners. He considered instruction as an effort to assist or shape growth.In 1996 he published The Culture of Education.. This book reflected his changes in viewpoints since the 1960s. He adopted the point of view that culture shapes the mind and provides the raw material with which we constrict our world and our self-conception.   Four features of Bruners theory of instruction.   1. Predisposition to learn. This feature specifically states the experiences which move the learner toward a love of learning in general, or of learning something in particular. Motivational, cultural, and personal factors contribute to this. Bruner emphasized social factors and early teachers and parents influence on this. He believed learning and problem solving emerged out of exploration. Part of the task of a teacher is to maintain and direct a childs spontaneous explorations.   2. Structure of knowledge.it is possible to structure knowledge in a way that enables the learner to most readily grasp the information. This is a relative feature, as there are many ways to structure a body of knowledge and many preferences among learners. Bruner offered considerable detail about structuring knowledge.   Understanding the fundamental structure of a subject makes it more comprehensible. Bruner viewed categorization as a fundamental process in the structuring of knowledge. (See the section below on categorization.)   Details are better retained when placed within the contest of an ordered and structured pattern.   To generate knowledge which is transferable to other contexts, fundamental principles or patterns are best suited.   The discrepancy between beginning and advanced knowledge in a subject area is diminished when instruction centers on a structure and principles of orientation. This means that a body of knowledge must be in a simple enough form for the learner to understand it and it must be in a form recognizable to the students experience.   3. Modes of representation: visual, words, symbols.   4. Effective sequencing- no one sequencing will fit every learner, but in general, increasing difficulty. Sequencing, or lack of it, can make learning easier or more difficult.   Form and pacing of reinforcement   Categorization:   Bruner gave much attention to categorization of information in the construction of internal cognitive maps. He believed that perception, conceptualization, learning, decision making, and making inferences all involved categorization.   Bruner suggested a system of coding in which people form a hierarchical arrangement of related categories. Each successively higher level of categories becomes more specific, echoing Benjamin Blooms understanding of knowledge acquisition as well as the related idea of instructional scaffolding (Blooms Taxonomy).   Categories  are rules that specify four thing about objects.   1. Criterial attributes required characteristics for inclusion of an object in a category. (Example, for an object to be included in the category car it must have an engine, 4 wheels, and be a possible means of transportation,   2. The second rule prescribes how the criteral attributes are combined.   3. The third rule assignees weight to various properties. (Example, it could be a car even if a tire was missing, and if it was used for hauling cargo it would be shifted to a different category of truck or perhaps van.   4. The fourth rule sets acceptance limits on attributes. Some attributes can vary widely, such as color. Others are fixed. For example a vehicle without an engine is not a car. Likewise, a vehicle with only two wheels would not be included in car.   There a several kinds of categories:   Identity categories categories include objects based on their attributes or features.   Equivalent categories (provide rules for combining categories. Equivalence can be determined by affective criteria, which render objects equivalent by emotional reactions, functional criteria, based on related functions (for example, car, truck, van could all be combined in an inclusive category called motor vehicle), or by formal criteria, for example by science, law, or cultural agreement. For example, and apple is still an apple whether it is green, ripe, dried, etc (identity). It is food (functional), and it is a member of of a botanical classification group (formal).   Coding systems  are categories serve to recognize sensory input. They are major organizational variables in higher cognitive functioning. Going beyond immediate sensory data involves making inferences on the basis of related categories. Related categories form a coding system. These are hierarchical arrangements of related categories.   Bruners theories introduced the idea that people interpret the world largely in terms of similarities and differences.   This is a significant contribution to how individuals construct their unique models of the world.   Application   Bruner emphasized four characteristics of effective instruction which emerged from his theoretical constructs.   1. Personalized: instruction should relate to learners predisposition, and facilitate interest toward learning,   2. Content Structure: content should be structured so it can be most easily grasped by the learner   3. Sequencing: sequencing is an important aspect for presentation of material   4. Reinforcement: rewards and punishment should be selected and paced appropriately.   Intellectual Development   Bruner postulated three stages of intellectual development.   The first stage he termed Enactive, when a person learns about the world through actions on physical objects and the outcomes of these actions.   The second stage was called Iconic where learning can be obtained through using models and pictures.   The final stage was Symbolic in which the learner develops the capacity to think in abstract terms. Based on this three-stage notion, Bruner recommended using a combination of concrete, pictorial then symbolic activities will lead to more effective learning.   Bruner, J. (1960). The Process of Education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press   Harley, 1995   http://tip.psychology.org/bruner.html   LeFrancois, 1972   Sahakian, 1976 The Importance of Language Language is important for the increased ability to deal with abstract concepts.Bruner  argues that  language  can code stimuli and free an individual from the constraints of dealing only with appearances, to provide a more complex yet flexible cognition. The use of words can aid the development of the concepts they represent and can remove the constraints of the here now concept. Basically, he sees the infant as an intelligent active problem solver from birth, with intellectual abilities basically similar to those of the mature adult. According to Bruner the child represents the world to himself in three different ways. Educational Implications of Bruners Theory For Bruner (1961), the purpose of education is not to impart knowledge, but instead to facilitate a childs thinking and problem solving skills which can then be transferred to a range of situations. Specifically, education should also develop symbolic thinking in children. In 1960 Bruners text,  The Process of Education  was published. The main premise of Bruners text was that students are active learners who construct their own knowledge. Bruner (1960) opposed  Piagets  notion of readiness. He argued that schools waste time trying to match the complexity of subject material to a childs cognitive stage of development. This means students are held back by teachers as certain topics are deemed to difficult to understand and must be taught when the teacher believes the child has reached the appropriate state of cognitive maturity. Bruner (1960) adopts a different view and believes a child (of any age) is capable of understanding complex information:  We begin with the hypothesis that any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of development. (p. 33) Bruner (1960) explained how this was possible through the concept of the  spiral curriculum. This involved information being structured so that complex ideas can be taught at a simplified level first, and then re-visited at more complex levels later on. Therefore, subjects would be taught at levels of gradually increasing difficultly (hence the spiral analogy). Ideally teaching his way should lead to children being able to solve problems by themselves. Bruner (1961) proposes that learners construct their own knowledge and do this by organizing and categorizing information using a coding system. Bruner believe that the most effect way to develop a coding system is to discover it rather than being told it by the teacher. The concept of  discovery learning  implies that students construct their own knowledge for themselves (also known as a constructist approach). The role of the teacher should not be to teach information by rote learning, but instead to facilitate the learning process. This means that a good teacher will design lessons that help student discover the relationship between bits of information. To do this a teacher must give students the information they need, but without organizing for them. The use of the spiral curriculum can aid the process of  discovery learning. Bruner and Vygotsky Both Bruner and Vygotsky emphasise a childs environment, especially the social environment, more than Piaget did. Both agree that adults should play an active role in assisting the childs learning. Bruner, like Vygotksy, emphasised the social nature of learning, citing that other people should help a child develop skills through the process of  scaffolding. The term scaffolding first appeared in the literature when Wood, Bruner and Ross described how tutors interacted with pre-schooler to help them solve a block reconstruction problem (Wood et al., 1976). The concept of scaffolding is very similar to  Vygotskys  notion of the  zone of proximal development, and it not uncommon for the terms to be used interchangeably.Scaffolding  involves helpful, structured interaction between an adult and a child with the aim of helping the child achieve a specific goal. Difference Between Bruner and Piaget Obviously there are similarities between  Piaget  and Bruner, but an importantdifference  is that Bruners modes are not related in terms of which presuppose the one that precedes it. Whilst sometimes one mode may dominate in usage, they co-exist. Bruner states that what determines the level of intellectual development is the extent to which the child has been given appropriate instruction together with practice or experience. So the right way of presentation and the right explanation will enable a child to grasp a concept usually only understood by an adult. His theory stresses the role of education and the adult. Although  Bruner proposes  stages of cognitive development, he doesnt see them as representing different separate modes of thought at different points of development (like Piaget). Instead, he sees a gradual development of cognitive skills and techniques into more integrated adult cognitive techniques. Bruner views  symbolic representation  as crucial for cognitive development and since language is our primary means of symbolizing the world, he attaches great importance to language in determining cognitive development. BRUNER AGREES WITH PIAGET BRUNER DISAGREES WITH PIAGET 1. Children are PRE-ADAPTED to learning 1. Development is a CONTINUOUS PROCESS not a series of stages 2. Children have a NATURAL CURIOSITY 2. The development of LANGUAGE is a cause not a consequence of cognitive development 3. Childrens COGNITIVE STRUCTURES develop over time 3. You can SPEED-UP cognitive development. You dont have to wait for the child to be ready 4. Children are ACTIVE participants in the learning process 4. The involvement of ADULTS and MORE KNOWLEDGEABLE PEERS makes a big difference 5. Cognitive development entails the acquisition of SYMBOLS 5. Symbolic thought does NOT REPLACE EARLIER MODES OF REPRESENTATION

Structural Consensus and Structural Conflict Theories

Structural Consensus and Structural Conflict Theories Compare and contrast structural consensus and structural conflict theories of social action with interpretivist perspectives that emphasize human agency In Sociology, one of the main concepts that have influenced social theory is structure and social action. Functionalism and Marxism fit into the structure view that emphasises the macro perspective; examining society as a whole and how it shapes human behaviour and ideas, therefore, in order to understand human behaviour, the social structures are in need of investigation (Brym Lie, 2009) . On the other hand, social action theories are voluntaristic. They focus on human interactions upon a micro level. It argues that individuals have free will and are not ‘puppets’; therefore, the actions and meanings of individuals create and shape the society. This suggests actions are not determined by structure. In this essay, these theories will be addressed in order to gain a better understanding of how they are relevant in today’s society. It is important to compare and contrast these theories through use of evidence and critical thinking as they often contradict each othe r but nonetheless create a wider understanding of human agency. In the first half of this essay, structural conflict is illustrated as an assumption that society is becoming more individualistic, though as a counter argument functionalism uses the idea of social solidarity, which leads to their further analysis showing their agreements and disagreements. A contrary debate is provided in the second section of the essay that focuses further on the humanist individualistic approach. However, Weber believes both structural and social action should be taken in to consideration in order to understand human’s actions efficiently. Functionalism falls into structural consensus theory that came into sociology in the middle of twentieth century, although, some of its ideas were present in the founders of sociology in the ninetieth century. It has been argued that the model that functionalism has created of society has led to other perspectives re-emerging in response to those ideas (O’Byrne, 2010). Thus the theory has made such impact on sociological thinking to this day. Functionalists such as Emile Durkheim (1858- 1917) whom is arguably one of the founding fathers of sociology firstly stressed consensus notion in social structure; stating that any human thinking is inherited rather than invented. This takes place in socialisation process that teaches humans to conform to norms and values or in other words- cultural behaviour considerably accepted in certain settings (Jones, 2003). He deemed this term ‘collective consciousness’; Durkheim described this as beliefs and ideas of a common human b eing in the same society (Punch et al, 2013). Furthermore, Durkheim explored society as a system and its function within the society. In order to explain this, use of organic analogy takes place as a way of describing how each social factor or institutions are interdependent for the society’s needs. For instance, if one body organ stops functioning, then the rest of the body cannot survive, this can be explained within social institutions too, without the nuclear family the society wouldn’t be able to form social cohesion and solidarity (Jones, 2001). On the other hand, other functionalists such as Talcott Parsons had similar ideas, though ‘for Talcott Parsons one of the central tasks of sociology is to analyse society as a system of functionally interrelated variables’ (Cohen, 1968, p.45). Although Parsons does links his ideas to Durkheim, that is, in the society the personal beings and their views need to be treated as variables as stated by Cohen (1968). In contrast to structural consensus theories mentioned above, Marxism is known as a structural conflict theory that has been influenced and introduced by Karl Marx (1818- 1883). Economics was highly influential for him as well how the working class sell labour power, which determines how we relate to one another (Duffy, 2009). The theory examines the conflict between bourgeoisies and proletarians, unlike functionalism, he focused on class conflict and how it can be settled. Though since his death, there have been many interpretations of his thesis, some that stick to structural explanations of capitalism, and others that emphasize human agency as a humanist approach (Fawbert, 2014). Louis Althusser (1918-1990) interpreted Marx’s work on a structural capitalist sense; however instead of solely focusing on economic determinism, he alternatively concentrated on politics and ideologies. He claims that these levels are objective. This is because he believes humans are not active ag ents in social change, as we do not shape our society. For Althusser, to understand why the capitalism hasn’t collapsed, the states and its exercise of power need to be examined. He has discovered the repressive state apparatus, which consists of institutions such as the legal system or the police. In addition to the political apparatus that is- ideological state apparatus that includes media, family, education etc. that shape human’s process of thinking. As a result, our structure can be interconnected, just like how certain structures of dominance changed in history (Jones et al., 2011). To summarise, in his view, human agency plays no part in social change but the structures, and the only way of capitalism being taken over is through its internal contradictions. Antonio Gramsci (1891-1937), on the other hand was more of a humanist Marxist whom was famous for originating the notion of hegemony idea that there are constant ideologies to alter a person’s perspectives on the world. (Salamini, 1974) ‘For Gramsci, like Althusser, culture is relatively autonomous. However, unlike Althusser, social change is caused by cultural struggles as much as changes in economic forces.’ (Fawbert, 2011, pp.3). As this theory focuses on human agency and social action, it can be argued that it shifts towards the micro perspective due to the ideas moving away from the structural capitalism. This may suggest that the theory is more applicable to contemporary society as human beings have become more complex to understand as a result of constant social change. According to Punch (2013) Marxism and Functionalism have a few things in common, they both investigated the society from a macro perspective view instead of how individuals affect structure, and they were also both concerned about the society moving towards modernity and the ninetieth century industrialization as well as its effects on quality of life. This also included the introduction of theories of how modernity came about and its components. However, Marxists did focus more on the capitalism rather than the industrial society. Marx highly believed in political revolution of the working class that would involve rebellion, although his predictions have been criticised due to Eastern Europe Soviet Union destruction and rise of nationalism. However, it has been argued that in Marx’s eyes, these communists’ movements weren’t what he was hoping for. Durkheim, however, rejected the politics of revolution but did construct ideas about socialism. He focused greatly o n norms and values and social solidarity; therefore, a revolution would disturb these socially. Moreover, although Marxism is stated as highly deterministic, it can be argued that he does look at solidarity within social class. For instance, he believes that the proletarian does have to collectively rise up to the Bourgeoisie’s, sensing the idea of togetherness within the lower class. Though they had different motives, they both however, used analogy to explain the social structure. In this case Durkheim used organic analogy as explained above, whereas Marx used a building analogy – the base and the superstructure. The superstructure involves social institutions such as family and education, which supports class interests along with maintaining and legitimating the base through ideologies and culture. Economic base alternatively shapes the superstructure as it consists of means and relations of production that is owned by the bourgeoisie’s. This suggests that Marxists believed there are only two classes in which it is very difficult to move from one to another. Whereas functionalists disagreed with this and instead believed in meritocracy, the idea that if you work hard enough you can achieve through merit, essentially, gain success of what you deserve. This implies that if you put in enough effort, you can move from lower to upper class (Collins, 20 00). Moreover, both theories have been criticised for ignoring individual differences and their motives. This is because they strongly believe that the society shapes the individual instead of individual’s meanings and actions influencing the society, therefore the theories aren’t as applicable in contemporary society as it needs to examine human’s meanings to the world. Now we turn away from looking at macro perspectives to micro and their differences and similarities within. The ideas of interpritvist view of action and structure are displayed as contrary. Unlike structural theories, social action discusses the interactions between individuals in small groups and their motives; in result of this it is called social pragmatist theory. Human beings aren’t seen a puppets whereas the structure debate talks about individuals as predictable human beings. This then raises question on how the structure influence person’s actions and, in opposition, how does one’s actions alter the social structure (Morselli, 2014). There is a disagreement amongst the theories within social action when the discussion of the connection between society and action comes in. This is because theories such as ethnomethodology disagree with the concepts of wider structures but sees us as rational human beings and how we make sense of our everyday world (Bilton et al., 2002). While others such as G.H. Mead (1863-1931) who is symbolic interactionist stresses the socialisation as much as structural theories, in spite of this, he underlines the idea of reacting self and the behaviour expected. Mead has a base of three premises that tries to explain human agency. The first is that depending on what the thing is, humans will act certainly towards it, such as institutions, for instance, an individual would act differently in a school environment compared to a governmental institution. The second premise enhances the meaning of these things that it derived from- in most cases social interaction. Interpretive process then takes places in order to administer and modify such things (Blumer, 1986). Hence, Bilton (2002) suggests that although they are all micro theorist they interpret the terms of action and meaning inversely. Following on Meads work, these 3 premises challenged other sociological thinking, especially functionalism, to the view that solely the society determined human action and thinking. Evidence to back his theory was shown in Erving Goffman’s (1992-1982) work of whom was vastly influenced by Mead’s ideas of symbolic interactionism. His study tried to examine how social identity was defined by adaptation of certain roles, in this case, the mental asylum tried to reduce each inmate’s individuality through uniforms, haircuts, use of number instead of names, leading to each one of them changing his or her identity and self-image for the institutions interests (Calvert, 1992). Finally, Max Weber (1864-1920) took on an approach that combines social structure as well as agency theory emphasising motivational action. This differed to previous theories as functionalism greatly focused on institutions maintaining cohesion of wider structures, whereas Marx’s ideas were concerned on social class conflict as well as the origins of industrial capitalism. Though Weber rejected Marx’s view of economic determinism, he didn’t come across as falsifying them; he argued that Marx provided an unpolished portrayal of human motivation, therefore, lack of causal analysis of historical circumstances (Hughes et al., 1995). He also rejected the idea of universalism- that all societies go through same stages, due to meaningless infinity of complexity affecting each society differently (Chernilo, 2013). He therefore, tries to look at motivated social action as well as discuss large structures, such as cultural ideas. Weber’s vision was that we have move d away from traditional action to rational or in other words, goal-orientated. Individuals in our contemporary society start to think in a way to gain the benefits of the final goal and outweigh its consequences. Social structure becomes the outcome of this as our lifestyle is the product of our motives. As a consequence, Weber argued that modern capitalist societies are in a triumph of rationality. To explain this he used religion, specifically puritan protestant movement, which criticised the ‘catholic’ way of thinking. An example of this is his book The Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism (1997). He found that Calvinism created the work ethic and asceticism that contributed to the rise of industrial capitalism; this maintained capitalism due to this religion accumulating constant wealth as a result of belief of predestination. The book moreover, states that the human actions can create consequences of rational thinking on a structural basis. Due to such disenchanted world, all superstition and values become pushed out cultural thinking. This is a crisis for Weber as then this leads to no meaning to the world in the way that religion has created previously (Jones et al., 2011) To summarise, the human agency has been evaluated variably depending on the theories. Durkheim mainly focuses on social solidarity influencing the decision making, although Marx agrees that society is responsible for shaping one’s opinion he’s more economical determinant. To balance this out, Weber brings in human’s motives and how these drives decision making upon an individual, as well as taking structural causes into consideration. Therefore, it can be argued that these sociology fathers have defined human agency but due their differences it is difficult to fully comprehend the affect the society has on human agency. References Bilton, T., Bonnet, K., Jones, P., Lawson, T., Skinner, D., Stanworth, M., Webster, A. (2002) Introductory Sociology, 4th edn., Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillian. Blumer, H. (1992) Symbolic Interactionism: Perspective and Method, California: University of California Press. Brym, R. Lie, J. (2009) Sociology: Your Compass for a New World, Brief Edition: Enhanced Edition 2edn., Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Co Inc Calvert, SP. (1992) Sociology Today, Hertfordshire: Harvester Wheatsheaf. Chernilo, D. (2013) The Natural Law Foundations of Modern Social Theory: A Quest for Universalism, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cohen, P. (1968) Modern Social Theory, London: Heinemann Education Books Ltd. Collins (2000) Internet-linked dictionary of Sociology, Glasgow: HarperCollins. Duffy, F. (2009) Marx, Social Change and Revolution’, Research Starters Sociology [Online] Research Starters, EBSCOhost (Accessed: 17 November 2014). Fawbert, J. (2014) Lecture 6: Structural and cultural Marxism: Althusser, Gramsci and the Frankfurt School, Understanding society, [Online] Available at: https://breo.beds.ac.uk (Accessed: 22 November 2014). Hughes, A.J., Martin, J.P., Sharrock, W.W. Understanding Classical Sociology: Marx, Weber, Durkheim, London: SAGE. Jones, P. (2003) Introducing Social theory, Cambridge: Polity Press. Jones, P., Bradbury, L., Boutillier, S., (2011) Introducing Social Theory 2edn., Cambridge: Polity Press. Jones, S. (2001) Durkheim Reconsidered, Cambridge: Polity Press. Morselli, A. (2014) Contemporary Capitalism between Human Action and Social Structure, Economics Sociology, 7 (2) pp. 11-19 EBSCOhost [Online] Available at: http://0-eds.b.ebscohost.com.brum.beds.ac.uk (Accessed: 17 November 2014). O’Byrne, D. (2010) Introducing Sociological Theory , Dawsonera [Online] Available at: https://www.dawsonera.com (Accessed: 15 November 2014). Punch, S., Marsh, I., Keating, M., Harden, J. (2013) Sociology, Making sense of Society, 5th edn., Edinburgh: Pearson. Salamini, L (1974) Gramsci and Marxist Sociology of Knowledge: an Analysis of Hegemony—Ideology—Knowledge, Sociological Quarterly, 15 (3) pp. 359-380 Wiley Online Library [Online] Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com (Accessed: 05 December 2014). Weber, M (1905)The Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism,London: Routledge. 1

Essay --

Kate Chopin portrayed in her novels and short stories female emancipation in the 19th century, which was far from being considered acceptable. She also illustrated picturesque descriptions of the South of the United States. Her stories reflect a socio-historical situation between conservatism and modernity, but also depicted female characters aspiring to break free of their subordinate status. In the narrative literature of the 19th century, women, even placed at the center of the story are mostly 'off topic': rarely considered as an autonomous subject. They appear most often as an instrument subjected to social conventions. Chopin was particularly interested in the problems faced by women in marriage. She wanted to show that every vocation requires commitments and it is necessary to give up some of our aspiration to achieve our goal. Her literary style is simple, colorful, and picturesque. Chopin’s art of description is Important; she observed and rendered what is essential. Kate Chopin was concise and knew particularly how to select adjectives; she used punctuation as a rhythmic tool. She meticulously depicted images, used metaphor and particularly irony to reflect, as briefly and precisely as possible, the feeling experienced by the protagonists of her stories. The Story of an Hour written on April 19, 1894, and first published in Vogue on December 6, 1894, doesn’t escape Chopin’s footprint. She used irony as a rhetorical device to express her message indirectly. The story becomes suddenly more interesting, because the reader has to think about the literal significance of the message. There are different types of irony: situational, verbal, and dramatic. This offers a variety of choices for writers to make their works surely i... ...itive. Chopin writes only about an hour of Louise’s life, because she does not want to give the audience details that would make them focus on things that are not a key to the story. She does not want the story to be about their relationship. She writes the short story strictly about freedom and independence; it emphases on liberty and women’s capabilities. Mrs. Mallard did love her husband dearly, but her individuality was more imperative. She had dreamed of it for so long, that when she found out she could finally get it, she would not go back to her old life; her body would not let her. The Story of an Hour by Kate Chopin inspired many women to pursue their goals in life, because she reminded them that there was more to life than just being a good wife. She reminded them that women are incredibly powerful, and that they are as capable as men to succeed in life.

Harriet Beecher Stowe, Henry David Thoreau and the Voices of the Oppres

Harriet Beecher Stowe, Henry David Thoreau and the Voices of the Oppressed      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There have been many writers who dedicated much of their work towards representing the voices of the oppressed. Among them are Harriet Beecher Stowe and Henry David Thoreau. Although these authors were dedicated to the same cause they approached the subject from their own perspective, reflecting on an issue that was relevant to their position in life. Their literature was used to address, or in some cases attack, problems within society such as race, equality, and gender. The voices of Stowe, and Thoreau were used as an instrument in representing the injustices of those who had no one else to protect them. Oddly enough, this protection was from the very government which declared "equal rights" for all men. Harriet Beecher Stowe is perhaps best known for her work entitled Uncle Tom’s Cabin, a heart-wrenching story about the treatment and oppression of slaves. Uncle Tom’s Cabin brings to life the evils of slavery and questions the moral and religious values of those who condoned or participated in such a lifestyle. While the factual accuracy of this work has been criticized by advocators of both slavery and abolition it is widely believed that the information contained was drawn from Stowe’s own life experiences (Adams 62). She was the seventh child and youngest daughter in her family. She was only four years old when her mother died, which left the young Harriet Beecher little protection from her "Fatherà ¢s rugged character and doctrinal strictness" (Adams 19). To further complicate matters she was aware that her father preferred she had been a boy. According to Adams, although Stoweà ¢s childhood was not entirely unhappy she would never forget... ...n Wilderness is Thoreau." Henry David Thoreau: Studies and Commentaries. Ed. Walter Harding et al. Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickenson UP, 1972. 19. Slavery Source: "Biographical ketch of the Authoress." Stowe, Harriet Beecher: Uncle Tomà ¢s emancipation, earthly care and heavenly discipline; and other tales and sketches. 1853. fiche E441.S645 no.354, card 1. xx. Stanton, Elizabeth Cady. "Declaration of Sentiments." The Anthology of American Literature. Ed. Paul Lauter et al. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. ,1998. 2035. Stowe, Harriet Beecher. "Uncle Tomà ¢s Cabin." 1852. The Heath Anthology of American Literature. Ed. Paul Lauter et al. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1998. 2325, 2326. Thoreau, Henry David/ "Resistance to Civil Disobedience." 1849. The Heath Anthology of American Literature. Ed. Paul Lauter et al. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1998. 2090, 2094. Harriet Beecher Stowe, Henry David Thoreau and the Voices of the Oppres Harriet Beecher Stowe, Henry David Thoreau and the Voices of the Oppressed      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There have been many writers who dedicated much of their work towards representing the voices of the oppressed. Among them are Harriet Beecher Stowe and Henry David Thoreau. Although these authors were dedicated to the same cause they approached the subject from their own perspective, reflecting on an issue that was relevant to their position in life. Their literature was used to address, or in some cases attack, problems within society such as race, equality, and gender. The voices of Stowe, and Thoreau were used as an instrument in representing the injustices of those who had no one else to protect them. Oddly enough, this protection was from the very government which declared "equal rights" for all men. Harriet Beecher Stowe is perhaps best known for her work entitled Uncle Tom’s Cabin, a heart-wrenching story about the treatment and oppression of slaves. Uncle Tom’s Cabin brings to life the evils of slavery and questions the moral and religious values of those who condoned or participated in such a lifestyle. While the factual accuracy of this work has been criticized by advocators of both slavery and abolition it is widely believed that the information contained was drawn from Stowe’s own life experiences (Adams 62). She was the seventh child and youngest daughter in her family. She was only four years old when her mother died, which left the young Harriet Beecher little protection from her "Fatherà ¢s rugged character and doctrinal strictness" (Adams 19). To further complicate matters she was aware that her father preferred she had been a boy. According to Adams, although Stoweà ¢s childhood was not entirely unhappy she would never forget... ...n Wilderness is Thoreau." Henry David Thoreau: Studies and Commentaries. Ed. Walter Harding et al. Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickenson UP, 1972. 19. Slavery Source: "Biographical ketch of the Authoress." Stowe, Harriet Beecher: Uncle Tomà ¢s emancipation, earthly care and heavenly discipline; and other tales and sketches. 1853. fiche E441.S645 no.354, card 1. xx. Stanton, Elizabeth Cady. "Declaration of Sentiments." The Anthology of American Literature. Ed. Paul Lauter et al. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. ,1998. 2035. Stowe, Harriet Beecher. "Uncle Tomà ¢s Cabin." 1852. The Heath Anthology of American Literature. Ed. Paul Lauter et al. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1998. 2325, 2326. Thoreau, Henry David/ "Resistance to Civil Disobedience." 1849. The Heath Anthology of American Literature. Ed. Paul Lauter et al. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1998. 2090, 2094.

Self-discovery in Desolation Angels Essay -- Desolation Angels Essays

Self-discovery in Desolation Angels Stripped to its barest essentials, Jack Kerouac's novel Desolation Angels reads as a drug-induced stupor of casual sex (or fantasies thereof), mixed into a melting of jazz and poetry. The often-adolescent urges of Kerouac's character Jack Duluoz, however, are mere episodes in the fast-paced, write-it-as-you-think-it, pre-literary notoriety phase in the life of a man who essentially founded the Beat generation. Though the overflowing stream of consciousness that comprises this book seems undoubtedly spontaneous, Desolation Angels actually examines, in a most straightforward and clearly organized manner, the state of human solitude. Zipping from a Forest Service mountaintop outpost to San Francisco, from Tangiers to London, and slipping from loneliness to jazz clubs full of "cats," from a morphine addict's room to the home of his knitting French Canadian mother, the angels of desolation take on varying shapes, ceaselessly trailing Duluoz/Kerouac. The novel begins as Duluoz/Kerouac ascends Desolation Peak on Starvation Ridge in the High Cascades for a seventy-day job as a lookout for forest fires. He initially anticipates with relish the idea of a seclusion that will allow him to ponder "the meaning of all this existence and suffering and going to and fro in vain" without the distractions of friends, drugs or alcohol Yet as the days dissolve into each other endlessly, he begins to tire of the monotony of Desolation. The stark emptiness greeting him from his outlook reflects the vacuity of life as he sees it. Entitled "Desolation in Solitude," this chapter records his mind patterns as he despairs over the "Void," an uncertain entity that symbolizes an eternal, vast, indifferent force of ... ...r undying devotion to him, and this seems to partially explain the source of his anger. He mourns the fact that a creature as wholesome and pure as she will inevitably grow old and die without leaving a mark on anyone but himself and his sister. Yet in accepting her mortality, he, for the first time in the book, finds an extended sense of peace. Throughout all of his earlier road trips and travels, he searched for serenity, only to be followed by Desolation. Here, finally, taking a bus across the country with strong yet innocent "Memere," does he leave them behind. In witnessing this change, the reader understands that constant movement cannot effect a sense of place, as Duluoz/Kerouac had thought throughout his transient excursions. Only facing our relationships with those we truly love can answer our questions regarding who we are in this mixed-up world. Â  

Condom Machines Should Be Permitted on Campus

Darren Tan Natalie Hudson, Ph. D. ENG 113 – 1006 November 1, 2012 Persuasion – Condom Machines Should be Permitted on Campus An increasing number of students is having sexual intercourse in campus dormitories, thus increasing the need for condom machines to be placed on campus grounds. First and most importantly, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has reported that 47. 4% of students have had at least one encounter of sexual intercourse during their terms of study with only 38. % of them having used any form of protection. This could result in an increased risk of contracting sexually transmitted diseases (STD) such as syphilis, gonorrhea and the most fatal of all, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). In 2009, an estimated 5,259 young adults (aged 17-24) were diagnosed with AIDS, and the numbers are still increasing over the years. Second, 21. 6% of students engaged in sexual intercourse after consuming alcohol or drugs at college parties.This co uld result in a higher percentage of students having unprotected sex, and it could also expose them to higher risks of catching STDs if they have sex with unknown partners. Finally, having unprotected sex could also result in unwanted pregnancies. Tunette Powell, a bright college student who used to do very well in school, saw a plummeting in her results due to the stress from her unwanted pregnancy. She eventually had to drop out of school because she was not able to focus on her studies anymore, thus limiting her qualifications.It is almost impossible to prevent sexual interactions between college students staying in campus hostels, but by placing condom machines on site, it will help to promote safe sex and at the same time greatly reduce the chances of acquiring STDs and unwanted pregnancies. Bibliography Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexual Risk Behavior: HIV, STD & Teen Pregnancy Prevention. n. d. Research. —. Sexual Risk Behavior: HIV, STD, & Teen Pregnan cy Prevention. 2011. Research. 1 November 2012.